Major Section: PROGRAMMING
ACL2 provides the functions fmt, fmt1, and fms as substitutes for Common
Lisp's format function. Also see fmt!, see fmt1!, and see fms! for
versions of these functions that write forms to files in a manner that allows
them to be read, by avoiding using backslash (\) to break long lines.
All three print a given string under an alist pairing character
objects with values, interpreting certain ``tilde-directives'' in
the string. Channel must be a character output channel (e.g.,
*standard-co*).
General Forms: result (fms string alist channel state evisc-tuple) ; state (fmt string alist channel state evisc-tuple) ; (mv col state) (fmt1 string alist column channel state evisc-tuple) ; (mv col state)
Fms and fmt print an initial newline to put channel in column 0;
Fmt1 requires the current column as input. Columns are numbered
from 0. The current column is the column into which the next
character will be printed. (Thus, the current column number is also
the number of characters printed since the last newline.) The col
returned by fmt and fmt1 is the current column at the conclusion of
the formatting. Evisc-tuple must be either nil (meaning no
abbreviations are used when objects are printed) or an
``evisceration tuple'' such as that returned by
(default-evisc-tuple state).We list the tilde-directives below. The notation is explained after the chart.
~xx pretty print vx (maybe after printing a newline)
~yx pretty print vx starting in current column; end with newline
~Xxy like ~xx but use vy as the evisceration tuple
~Yxy like ~yx but use vy as the evisceration tuple
~px pretty print term (maybe with infix) vx
(maybe after printing a newline)
~qx pretty print term (maybe with infix) vx
starting in current column; end with newline
~Pxy like ~px but use vy as the evisceration tuple
~Qxy like ~qx but use vy as the evisceration tuple
~@x if vx is a string, "str", recursively format "str"
if vx is ("str" . a), recursively format "str" under a+
~#x~[...~/...~/ ... ~/...~] cases on vx
^ ^ ... ^ if 0<=vx<=k, choose vxth alternative
0 1 ... k if vx is a list of length 1, case 0; else 1
~*x iterator: vx must be of the form
("str0" "str1" "str2" "str3" lst . a);
if lst is initially empty, format "str0" under a+; otherwise,
bind #\* successively to the elements of lst and then
recursively format "stri" under a+, where i=1 if there is one
element left to process, i=2 if there are two left, and i=3
otherwise.
~&x print elements of vx with ~x, separated by commas and a
final ``and''
~vx print elements of vx with ~x, separated by commas and a
final ``or''
~nx if vx is a small positive integer, print it as a word, e.g.,
seven;
if vx is a singleton containing a small positive integer, print
the corresponding ordinal as a word, e.g., seventh
~Nx like ~nx but the word is capitalized, e.g., Seven or Seventh
~tx tab out to column vx; newline first if at or past column vx
~cx vx is (n . w), print integer n right justified in field of
width w
~fx print object vx flat over as many lines as necessary
~Fx same as ~f, except that subsequent lines are indented to
start one character to the right of the first character printed
~sx if vx is a symbol, print vx, breaking on hyphens; if vx is a
string, print the characters in it, breaking on hyphens
~ tilde space: print a space
~_x print vx spaces
~
tilde newline: skip following whitespace
~% output a newline
~| output a newline unless already on left margin
~~ print a tilde
~- if close to rightmargin, output a hyphen and newline; else
skip this char
If x is a character, then vx is the value of #\x under the
current alist. When we say ``format str under a+'' we mean
recursively process the given string under an alist obtained by
appending a to the current alist.
ACL2's formatting functions print to the indicated channel, keeping
track of which column they are in. Fmt1 can be used if the caller
knows which column the channel is in (i.e., how many characters have
been printed since the last newline). Otherwise, fmt or fms must be
used, both of which output a newline so as to establish the column
position at 0. Unlike Common Lisp's format routine, fmt and its
relatives break the output into lines so as to try to avoid printing
past column 77. That number is built-into the definitions of ACL2's
formatting functions. Line breaks are automatically inserted as
necessary in place of spaces and after hyphens in the text being
printed.
The formatting functions scan the string from left to right,
printing each successive character unless it is a tilde (~). Upon
encountering tildes the formatters take action determined by the
character or characters immediately following the tilde. The
typical tilde-directive is a group of three successive characters
from the string being printed. For example, ~x0 is a 3 character
tilde-directive. The first character in a tilde-directive is always
the tilde character itself. The next character is called the
``command'' character. The character after that is usually taken as
the name of a ``format variable'' that is bound in the alist under
which the string is being printed. Format variables are, by
necessity, characters. The objects actually printed by a
tilde-directive are the objects obtained by looking up the command's
format variables in the alist. Typical format variable names are 0,
1, 2, ..., 9, a, b, c, etc., and if a tilde-directive uses the
format variable 0, as in ~x0, then the character #\0 must be bound
in the alist. Some tilde commands take no arguments and others take
more than one, so some directives are of length two and others are
longer.
It should be noted that this use of characters in the string to
denote arguments is another break from Common Lisp's format routine.
In Common Lisp, the directives refer implicitly to the ``next item
to be printed.'' But in ACL2 the directives name each item
explicitly with our format variables.
The following text contains examples that can be evaluated. To make
this process easier, we use a macro which is defined as part of ACL2
just for this documentation. The macro is named fmx and it takes up
to eleven arguments, the first of which is a format string, str, and
the others of which are taken as the values of format variables.
The variables used are #\0 through #\9. The macro constructs an
appropriate alist, a, and then evaluates
(fmt str a *standard-co* state nil).
Thus,
(fmx "Here is v0, ~x0, and here is v1, ~x1."
(cons 'value 0)
(cons 'value 1))
is just an abbreviation for
(fmt "Here is v0, ~x0, and here is v1, ~x1."
(list (cons #\0 (cons 'value 0))
(cons #\1 (cons 'value 1)))
*standard-co*
state
nil)
which returns (mv 53 state) after printing the line
Here is v0, (VALUE . 0), and here is v1, (VALUE . 1).We now devote special attention to three of the tilde-directives whose use is non-obvious.
The Case Statement
~#x is essentially a ``case statement'' in the language of fmt.
The proper form of the statement is
~#x~[case-0~/case-1~/ ... ~/case-k~],where each of the
case-i is a format string. In the most common
use, the variable x has an integer value, vx, between 0 and k,
inclusive. The effect of formatting the directive is to format
case-vx.For example
(fmx "Go ~#0~[North~/East~/South~/West~].~%" 1)will print ``Go East.'' followed by a newline and will return
(mv 0 state), while if you change the 1 above to 3 (the
maximum legal value), it will print ``Go West.''
In order to make it easier to print such phrases as ``there are
seven cases'' requiring agreement between subject and verb based on
the number of elements of a list, the case statement allows its
variable to take a list as its value and selects case-0 if the list
has length 1 and case-1 otherwise.
(let ((cases '(a b c)))
(fmx "There ~#0~[is ~n1 case~/are ~n1 cases~]."
cases
(length cases)))
will print ``There are three cases.'' but if you change the
'(a b c) above simply to '(a) it will print ``There is one
case.'' and if you change it to nil it will print ``There are
zero cases.''
Indirection
Roughly speaking, ~@ will act as though the value of its argument
is a format string and splice it into the current string at the
current position. It is often used when the phrase to be printed
must be computed. For example,
(let ((ev 'DEFUN))
(fmx "~x0 is an event~@1."
'foo
(if (member-eq ev '(defun defstub encapsulate))
" that may introduce a function symbol"
"")))
will print ``foo is an event that may introduce a function
symbol,'' but if the value of ev is changed from 'defun to 'defthm,
it prints ``foo is an event.'' The ~@ directive ``splices'' in the
computed phrase (which might be empty). Of course, this particular
example could be done with the case statement
~#1~[~/ that may introduce a function symbol~]where the value of
#\1 is appropriately computed to be 0 or 1.
If the argument to ~@ is a pair, it is taken to be a format string
consed onto an alist, i.e., ("str" . a), and the alist, a, is used
to extend the current one before "str" is recursively processed.
This feature of fmt can be used to pass around ``phrases'' that
contain computed contextual information in a. The most typical use
is as ``error messages.'' For example, suppose you are writing a
function which does not have access to state and so cannot print an
error message. It may nevertheless be necessary for it to signal an
error to its caller, say by returning two results, the first of
which is interpreted as an error message if non-nil. Our convention
is to use a ~@ pair to represent such messages. For example, the
error value might be produced by the code:
(cons
"Error: The instruction ~x0 is illegal when the stack is ~x1.~%"
(list (cons #\0 (current-instruction st))
(cons #\1 (i-stack st))))
If the current-instruction and i-stack (whatever they are) are
'(popi 3) and '(a b) when the cons above is evaluated, then it
produces
'("Error: The instruction ~x0 is illegal when the stack is ~x1.~%"
(#\0 POPI 3)
(#\1 A B))
and if this pair is made the value of the fmt variable 0, then
~@0 will print
Error: The instruction (POPI 3) is illegal when the stack is (A B).For example, evaluate
(let
((pair
'("Error: The instruction ~x0 is illegal when the stack is ~x1.~%"
(#\0 POPI 3)
(#\1 A B))))
(fmx "~@0" pair)).
Thus, even though the function that produced the ``error'' could
not print it, it could specify exactly what error message and data
are to be printed.
This example raises another issue. Sometimes it is desirable to
break lines in your format strings so as to make your source code
more attractive. That is the purpose of the tilde-newline
directive. The following code produces exactly the same output as
described above.
(let ((pair '("Error: The instruction ~x0 ~
is illegal when the stack is ~
~x1.~%"
(#\0 POPI 3)
(#\1 A B))))
(fmx "~@0" pair)).
Finally, observe that when ~@0 extends the current alist, alist,
with the one, a, in its argument, the bindings from a are added to
the front of alist, overriding the current values of any shared
variables. This ensures that the variable values seen by the
recursively processed string, "str", are those from a, but if
"str" uses variables not bound in a, their values are as specified
in the original alist. Intuitively, variables bound in a are local
to the processing of ("str" . a) but "str" may use ``global
variables.'' The example above illustrates this because when the
~@0 is processed, #\0 is bound to the error message pair. But
when the ~x0 in the error string is processed, #\0 is bound to the
illegal instruction.Iteration
The ~* directive is used to process each element of a list. For
example,
(let ((lst '(a b c d e f g h))) ; a true-list whose elements we exhibit
(fmx "~*0"
`("Whoa!" ; what to print if there's nothing to print
"~x*!" ; how to print the last element
"~x* and " ; how to print the 2nd to last element
"~x*, " ; how to print all other elements
,lst))) ; the list of elements to print
will print ``A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H!''. Try this example with
other true list values of lst, such as '(a b), '(a), and nil. The
tilde-directives ~&0 and ~v0, which take a true list argument and
display its elements separated by commas and a final ``and'' or
``or,'' are implemented in terms of the more general ~*.
The ~* directive allows the 5-tuple to specify in its final cdr an
alist with which to extend the current one before processing the
individual elements.
We often use ~* to print a series of phrases, separated by suitable
punctuation, whitespace and noise words. In such use, the ~*
handles the separation of the phrases and each phrase is generally
printed by ~@.
Here is a complex example. In the let*, below, we bind phrases to a
list of ~@ pairs and then we create a ~* 5-tuple to print out the
conjunction of the phrases with a parenthetical ``finally!'' if the
series is longer than 3.
(let* ((phrases
(list (list "simplifying with the replacement rules ~&0"
(cons #\0 '(rewrite-rule1
rewrite-rule2
rewrite-rule3)))
(list "destructor elimination using ~x0"
(cons #\0 'elim-rule))
(list "generalizing the terms ~&0"
(cons #\0 '((rev x) (app u v))))
(list "inducting on ~x0"
(cons #\0 'I))))
(5-tuple
(list
"magic" ; no phrases
"~@*" ; last phrase
"~@*, and~#f~[~/ (finally!)~] " ; second to last phrase
"~@*, " ; other phrases
phrases ; the phrases themselves
(cons #\f
(if (>(length phrases) 3) 1 0))))) ;print ``finally''?
(fmx "We did it by ~*0." 5-tuple))
This let* prints
We did it by simplifying with the replacement rules REWRITE-RULE1, REWRITE-RULE2 and REWRITE-RULE3, destructor elimination using ELIM- RULE, generalizing the terms (REV X) and (APP U V), and (finally!) inducting on I.You might wish to try evaluating the
let* after removing elements
of phrases.
Most of the output produced by ACL2 is produced via fmt statements.
Thus, inspection of the source code will yield many examples. A
complicated example is the code that explains the simplifier's work.
See :pc simplify-clause-msg1. An ad hoc example is provided by the
function fmt-doc-example, which takes two arguments: an arbitrary
true list and state. To see how fmt-doc-example works, :pe
fmt-doc-example.
(fmt-doc-example '(a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p) state)will produce the output
Here is a true list: (A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P). It has 16 elements, the third of which is C.and returnWe could print each element in square brackets: ([A], [B], [C], [D], [E], [F], [G], [H], [I], [J], [K], [L], [M], [N], [almost there: O], [the end: P]). And if we wished to itemize them into column 15 we could do it like this 0123456789012345 0 (zeroth) A 1 (first) B 2 (second) C 3 (third) D 4 (fourth) E 5 (fifth) F 6 (sixth) G 7 (seventh) H 8 (eighth) I 9 (ninth) J 10 (tenth) K 11 (eleventh) L 12 (twelfth) M 13 (thirteenth) N 14 (14th) O 15 (15th) P End of example.
(mv 15 state).
Finally, we should remind the reader that fmt and its subfunctions,
most importantly fmt0, are written entirely in ACL2. We make this
comment for two reasons. First, it illustrates the fact that quite
low level code can be efficiently written in the language. Second,
it means that as a last resort for documentation purposes you can
read the source code without changing languages.
